On 30 March 2018, the United Nations officially ended its nearly 15 years of peacekeeping in Liberia. The United Nations Peacekeeping Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) was established in October 2003 with an objective to aid the implementation of the ceasefire agreement following the conclusion of nearly two decades civil war in the West African country. Since then the peacekeepers endeavoured to protect civilians, supported humanitarian and human rights activities and assisted in national security reform. They also worked hard to ensure a smooth transition of power and developed a peacebuilding plan for the country. However, when the blue helmets exit from Liberia, the most significant concern is the sustainability of peace.
Civil Wars in Liberia
Liberia survived two brutal civil war in 1989-1996 and 1999-2003. The conflicts caused the death of 250,000 people and displaced over a million more. The first one began on Christmas Eve 1989, with the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) led by Charles Taylor launching a civil war against the government of Samuel Doe. Beyond the typical ethnic element, patronage of Krahns over Gios and Manos, economic causes also played a significant role in the Liberian civil war. Liberia's rich natural resources, including diamonds, gold, and other minerals, helped the rebels sustain their fight against the government. Hence, the conflict persisted through more than ten peace agreements and 20 cease-fires.1 The war also claimed the lives of more than 250,000 people.
The war became bloodier in its last phase. During these years, this West African country also witnessed the growth of warring factions from two to seven groups. However, in 1996, the conflicting parties managed to sign a peace agreement. The outcome was significant for two reasons. First, it ended the seven years of brutal conflict. Secondly, it led to elections in Liberia, and Charles Taylor with around 75 per cent vote share became the president. The shaky nature of peacebuilding process, failure of national reconciliation and issues with disarmament and demobilization process resulted in a short-lived peace in Liberia. In April 1999, the country plunged into its second civil war, when a militia called Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) launched armed attacks.2 The conflicts lasted till August 2003, when an ECOWAS-brokered peace deal that offered asylum for President Taylor in Nigeria and proposed an ECOWAS vanguard intervention force. In October 2003, the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) took over peacekeeping operations from ECOWAS.
UNMIL
UNMIL was established formally by Security Council resolution 1509 (2003) of 19 September 2003 upon the August 2003 Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA). The mission was one of the largest and widely supported peacekeeping operations in the Sub-Sahara with 77 countries contributing military forces and police personnel. UNMIL deployed more than 180,000 peacekeepers over 14 years, and the Security Council renewed its mandate 16 times.3 It assisted three democratic presidential and legislative elections in Liberia and disarmed more than 100,000 ex-combatants.
UNMIL is also significant due to the large number of Indian peacekeepers, including an all-women unit. India became the first UN member country to send an all-female peacekeeping unit. The Indian women contingent, the Formed Police Unit (FPU) served in Liberia for nine years, and they became model to the local women to participate in policing and the relevant rule of law frameworks.4 The then UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon noted that “through their unwavering performance, professionalism and discipline, including during the Ebola epidemic, these brave women gained the respect of both the Government and the Liberian people.”5 Similarly, Ellen Johnson also underlined the contribution of the women peacekeepers in “inspiring Liberian women, imparting in them the spirit of professionalism and encouraging them to join operations that protect the nation.”6
President George Weah's remarks describe how vital was the presence of UN peacekeepers in Liberia and their role in country's transition to peace. In January 2018 he said: “in our darkest days, the UN stood with us,” and “We will not fight again, we promise you.”7 As the UN peacekeepers exit from Liberia, the country no longer faces threats from any armed groups. Moreover, with the help of UNMIL, and other regional and international agencies, three successive democratically elected governments have made remarkable efforts to strengthen the rule of law and to revive the economy. However, serious challenges remain in Liberia. First, the anticipated dividend of peace has not reached the majority of the population, yet. Secondly, many of the root-causes of the conflict have not been addressed by the successive governments.8 Hence, the most significant concern when UNMIL exit from Liberia is, the preparedness of the country to keep its own peace.
Sustaining Peace
Exit of UNMIL generated both hopes and uncertainties. On the one hand, the Liberian government, a large section of people and international community believe that the country is ready to keep its peace. For instance, national police chief Chris Massaquoi observed that “we are ready, capable and committed…our security institutions are very prepared to provide the security as needed and are keen on building on the level of work we have started in securing the peace we all enjoy today.”9 President Weah also described the UNMIL departure as a new dawn for Liberia. The relative peace in the last 14 years, three peaceful power transfer, the developments regarding security sector reforms, and national reconciliation back their claim. The security apparatus including armed forces have gone through a thorough restructuring process and evolved into a professional ‘force for good.’
However, there are many worries about the country’s ability to sustain the peace. According to Brooks Marmon, in the last few years, Liberia experienced a series of setbacks in its efforts to establish itself as a functioning state. He cites the examples of election-related violence in 2011, mob attacks against several corporate and public institutions as well as against police stations in 2015.10 Similarly, the Ebola outbreak badly hit the Liberian economy, and a high rate of poverty still exists. The prolonged civil war destroyed much of the infrastructure and country lacks good roads, schools and hospitals. The economic implications of UNMIL withdrawal is another dilemma. Many Liberian businesses depended solely on UNMIL-generated demands.11 The exit also limits international attention and voluntary funding, on which most of the peacebuilding projects are envisioned.
Moreover, sustaining peace needs to address the root causes of conflict. Political and social systems founded on “privilege, patronage, the politicisation of the military and corruption, poverty, lack of access to justice and politicization of ethnicity” were the primary reasons of Liberian civil wars.12. Intra-communal cohesion and trust are still missing in the country, and some communities remain fragmented. Peacebuilding lacks a solid strategy to bridge the ever-present, multiple divisions in the Liberian society, indigenous versus settlers, tribal versus regional. The spreading land dispute between the Mandingo and Mano Nimba County and similar tensions in Bong region are cases in point. When IDPs and refugees return, recovering and transferring their lands to them will also be a significant challenge for the government.
Addressing the issues of war-affected youth, including reintegration former child soldiers and ex-combatants will also be crucial to nurturing the peace. The UN estimates at least 30,000 children are used as combatants in Liberia. Access to justice is another significant issue in Liberia due to the country's outdated legal system and ingrained corruption. Many judges have been accused of receiving bribes to grant bail or acquit defendants in criminal cases. In terms of reconciliation, most of the recommendations of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), including prosecution of war criminals, remain unimplemented. After nearly almost ten years, the TRC recommended war crimes court has yet to form.
To conclude, Liberia is going through the most significant period in its transition history. After the UNMIL exit, sustaining the peace that was achieved with the help of UN peacekeepers is the most significant challenge before the government. It needs a comprehensive vision, more resources, and stronger political will. It also requires international, regional and sub-regional support. One can only hope that Africa's greatest footballer ever, George Weah will make all the efforts to achieve this.
Dr. Rajeesh Kumar is Associate Fellow, ALACUN Centre, IDSA.
1. Charles T. Call, “Liberia's War Recurrence: Grievance over Greed”, Civil Wars, Vol.12, No.4, 2010, p.349.
2. George Klay Kieh , “The Roots of the Second Liberian Civil War”, International Journal on World Peace, 26:1, 2009, p.8
Is Liberia ready to keep its own peace?
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On 30 March 2018, the United Nations officially ended its nearly 15 years of peacekeeping in Liberia. The United Nations Peacekeeping Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) was established in October 2003 with an objective to aid the implementation of the ceasefire agreement following the conclusion of nearly two decades civil war in the West African country. Since then the peacekeepers endeavoured to protect civilians, supported humanitarian and human rights activities and assisted in national security reform. They also worked hard to ensure a smooth transition of power and developed a peacebuilding plan for the country. However, when the blue helmets exit from Liberia, the most significant concern is the sustainability of peace.
Civil Wars in Liberia
Liberia survived two brutal civil war in 1989-1996 and 1999-2003. The conflicts caused the death of 250,000 people and displaced over a million more. The first one began on Christmas Eve 1989, with the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) led by Charles Taylor launching a civil war against the government of Samuel Doe. Beyond the typical ethnic element, patronage of Krahns over Gios and Manos, economic causes also played a significant role in the Liberian civil war. Liberia's rich natural resources, including diamonds, gold, and other minerals, helped the rebels sustain their fight against the government. Hence, the conflict persisted through more than ten peace agreements and 20 cease-fires.1 The war also claimed the lives of more than 250,000 people.
The war became bloodier in its last phase. During these years, this West African country also witnessed the growth of warring factions from two to seven groups. However, in 1996, the conflicting parties managed to sign a peace agreement. The outcome was significant for two reasons. First, it ended the seven years of brutal conflict. Secondly, it led to elections in Liberia, and Charles Taylor with around 75 per cent vote share became the president. The shaky nature of peacebuilding process, failure of national reconciliation and issues with disarmament and demobilization process resulted in a short-lived peace in Liberia. In April 1999, the country plunged into its second civil war, when a militia called Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) launched armed attacks.2 The conflicts lasted till August 2003, when an ECOWAS-brokered peace deal that offered asylum for President Taylor in Nigeria and proposed an ECOWAS vanguard intervention force. In October 2003, the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) took over peacekeeping operations from ECOWAS.
UNMIL
UNMIL was established formally by Security Council resolution 1509 (2003) of 19 September 2003 upon the August 2003 Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA). The mission was one of the largest and widely supported peacekeeping operations in the Sub-Sahara with 77 countries contributing military forces and police personnel. UNMIL deployed more than 180,000 peacekeepers over 14 years, and the Security Council renewed its mandate 16 times.3 It assisted three democratic presidential and legislative elections in Liberia and disarmed more than 100,000 ex-combatants.
UNMIL is also significant due to the large number of Indian peacekeepers, including an all-women unit. India became the first UN member country to send an all-female peacekeeping unit. The Indian women contingent, the Formed Police Unit (FPU) served in Liberia for nine years, and they became model to the local women to participate in policing and the relevant rule of law frameworks.4 The then UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon noted that “through their unwavering performance, professionalism and discipline, including during the Ebola epidemic, these brave women gained the respect of both the Government and the Liberian people.”5 Similarly, Ellen Johnson also underlined the contribution of the women peacekeepers in “inspiring Liberian women, imparting in them the spirit of professionalism and encouraging them to join operations that protect the nation.”6
President George Weah's remarks describe how vital was the presence of UN peacekeepers in Liberia and their role in country's transition to peace. In January 2018 he said: “in our darkest days, the UN stood with us,” and “We will not fight again, we promise you.”7 As the UN peacekeepers exit from Liberia, the country no longer faces threats from any armed groups. Moreover, with the help of UNMIL, and other regional and international agencies, three successive democratically elected governments have made remarkable efforts to strengthen the rule of law and to revive the economy. However, serious challenges remain in Liberia. First, the anticipated dividend of peace has not reached the majority of the population, yet. Secondly, many of the root-causes of the conflict have not been addressed by the successive governments.8 Hence, the most significant concern when UNMIL exit from Liberia is, the preparedness of the country to keep its own peace.
Sustaining Peace
Exit of UNMIL generated both hopes and uncertainties. On the one hand, the Liberian government, a large section of people and international community believe that the country is ready to keep its peace. For instance, national police chief Chris Massaquoi observed that “we are ready, capable and committed…our security institutions are very prepared to provide the security as needed and are keen on building on the level of work we have started in securing the peace we all enjoy today.”9 President Weah also described the UNMIL departure as a new dawn for Liberia. The relative peace in the last 14 years, three peaceful power transfer, the developments regarding security sector reforms, and national reconciliation back their claim. The security apparatus including armed forces have gone through a thorough restructuring process and evolved into a professional ‘force for good.’
However, there are many worries about the country’s ability to sustain the peace. According to Brooks Marmon, in the last few years, Liberia experienced a series of setbacks in its efforts to establish itself as a functioning state. He cites the examples of election-related violence in 2011, mob attacks against several corporate and public institutions as well as against police stations in 2015.10 Similarly, the Ebola outbreak badly hit the Liberian economy, and a high rate of poverty still exists. The prolonged civil war destroyed much of the infrastructure and country lacks good roads, schools and hospitals. The economic implications of UNMIL withdrawal is another dilemma. Many Liberian businesses depended solely on UNMIL-generated demands.11 The exit also limits international attention and voluntary funding, on which most of the peacebuilding projects are envisioned.
Moreover, sustaining peace needs to address the root causes of conflict. Political and social systems founded on “privilege, patronage, the politicisation of the military and corruption, poverty, lack of access to justice and politicization of ethnicity” were the primary reasons of Liberian civil wars.12. Intra-communal cohesion and trust are still missing in the country, and some communities remain fragmented. Peacebuilding lacks a solid strategy to bridge the ever-present, multiple divisions in the Liberian society, indigenous versus settlers, tribal versus regional. The spreading land dispute between the Mandingo and Mano Nimba County and similar tensions in Bong region are cases in point. When IDPs and refugees return, recovering and transferring their lands to them will also be a significant challenge for the government.
Addressing the issues of war-affected youth, including reintegration former child soldiers and ex-combatants will also be crucial to nurturing the peace. The UN estimates at least 30,000 children are used as combatants in Liberia. Access to justice is another significant issue in Liberia due to the country's outdated legal system and ingrained corruption. Many judges have been accused of receiving bribes to grant bail or acquit defendants in criminal cases. In terms of reconciliation, most of the recommendations of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), including prosecution of war criminals, remain unimplemented. After nearly almost ten years, the TRC recommended war crimes court has yet to form.
To conclude, Liberia is going through the most significant period in its transition history. After the UNMIL exit, sustaining the peace that was achieved with the help of UN peacekeepers is the most significant challenge before the government. It needs a comprehensive vision, more resources, and stronger political will. It also requires international, regional and sub-regional support. One can only hope that Africa's greatest footballer ever, George Weah will make all the efforts to achieve this.
Dr. Rajeesh Kumar is Associate Fellow, ALACUN Centre, IDSA.
https://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/sustaining_peace_in_practice-liberia_and_sierra_leone.pdf (accessed on January 3, 2018).
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